The Strong Nuclear Force | Essay

The Strong Nuclear Force | Essay Youssef El Laithy One of the most extraordinary simplifications in physics is the fact that only four distinct forces are responsible for all the known spectacles that go on in the universe. These four basic forces are the electromagnetic force, the gravitational force, the weak nuclear force and the strong nuclear force. Since the weak and the strong force act over an extremely short range, (less than the size of a nucleus), we do not experience them directly. Even though we don’t directly experience these forces they are vital to our existence. These forces determine whether the nuclei of certain elements will be stable or will deteriorate, and they are the basis of the energy release in many nuclear reactions. The forces determine not only the stability of the nuclei, but also the abundance of elements in nature. The properties of the nucleus of an atom are determined by the number of electrons the atom has. The number of electrons in an atom, therefore, determines the chemistry of the atom. The gravitational force is responsible for holding together the universe at large, the atmosphere, water, and us; humans, to the planet. The electromagnetic force governs the atomic level phenomena, binding electrons their atoms, and atoms to other atoms in order to form molecules and compounds. The weak nuclear force is responsible for certain types of nuclear reactions. The fourth and last force, the strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the nucleus together. The Strong Force is also one of the four fundamental forces of nature, experienced by particles called quarks and sub particles made up of quarks. It is theforce that causes the interaction responsible for binding and holding protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus of a given element. The strong force is the strongest of among all the other forces forces, being approximately 100 times as strong as the electromagneticforce. It has the extremely short range to which it has an effect. A range of approximately 10^-15 m, less than the size of the atomic nucleus. The strong force is carried by particles called gluons; that is, when particles interact through the strong force, they do so by exchanging gluons. The protons in a nucleus must experience a repulsive force from the other protons in the nucleus.This is where the strong nuclear force comes into play. The strong nuclear force is created between the nucleons (protons and neutrons) by the exchange of particles called mes ons. This exchange can be compared to constantly hitting a tennis ball or a footballback and forth between two people. As long as these particles (mesons) are in motion back and forth, the strong force is able to hold the participating nucleons together. Thenucleons, however; mustbe extremely close to each other in order for this exchange of mesons to occur. The distance requiredfor the force to take place and have an effectis roughly about the diameter of a proton or a neutron. Thus, if a proton or neutron can get closer than this distance to proton on neutron, the exchange of mesons occurs normally and the force has an effect. However,if they cant get that close, the strong force is too weak to make them bind together and thus the force won’t have an effect and the nucleus would rapture. The range of the Strong Force varies from where it takes place. The strong interaction is apparent in two areas: On a large scale (about 1 to 3 femtometers ), it is the force that binds protons and neutrons (nucleons) together to form the nucleus of an atom . On a smaller scale (less than about 0.8 femtometers, the radius of a nucleon), it is the force (carried by gluons ) that holdsquarkstogether to form protons, neutrons, and other hadron particles. The discovery of the Strong of the nuclear force was a remarkable discovery and cleared up lots of mysteries that haunted many physicists in this era. The discovery force wasn’t all at once; meaning that the discovery was based on the work of more than once scientist and physicist all over the years. The first discovery was by James Chadwick. In 1932, British physicist James discovered that the nucleus of atoms contain neutrons. Soon after this discovery, the American-Hungarian physicist, Eugene Wigner suggested that the electromagnetic force wasn’t the force responsible forholding the nucleus together and he also suggested that there are two different nuclear forces not just one.Later on,In 1935 Japanese Yukawa Hideki reasoned that since the strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force had never been noticedor observed by the bare eye or even by microscopesthey must act over a range smaller than the diameter of the atomic nucleus.Yukawa developed the first field theory ofthe strong force with a new particle he called mesons as the force carryingsimulated particle. From these facts and hypothesizes, Hideki Yukawa concluded that there exists a force that binds nucleons (protons and neutrons) together. He named the force the â€Å"strong nuclear force† because it had to be stronger than the electromagnetic force that would otherwise push the nucleons apart. In everyday life and our day to day life, were only aware of two fundamental forces: gravity and electromagnetism. Physicists know about two more forces, which are carried out within the atom itself (inside atoms): the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.Try and imaginetwo protons (positive charge), they are pulled together by the strong nuclear force (as long as they are within range to start with). But the electromagnetic force pushes them away from each other, because they both have the same positive electric charge. When we talk about the uses if the strong nuclear force we can’t really find a direct use in which humans use the force. The only direct use is that the binding energyrelated to the strong nuclear force is used innuclear powerandnuclear weapons. The strong nuclear force is crucial to our everyday survival, God created this force exactly to suit our survival. Following this notion two questions are raised: What would happen if the strong nuclear force were a bit weaker? If the strong force were even slightly weaker than what it is, it would not be able to hold the atomic nuclei together against the repulsion of the electromagnetic force. According to Barrow and Tipler: `Ifthe Strong Force was decreased by 50% its normal power thiswould adversely affect the stability of all the elements essential to living organisms and biological systems. A bit more of a decrease, and there wouldntbe any stable elements except hydrogen. What would happen if the strong nuclear force were a bit stronger that what it is? According to Borrow and Tipler: â€Å"If the strong nuclear force was just a bit stronger compared to the electromagnetic force, two protons could stick togetherdisregardof their electromagnetic repulsion (forming a diproton).If this happened, all the hydrogen in the universe would have been burned to helium. If there were no Hydrogen in the universethere would be no water, for a start, and there would be no long-lived stars like the sun. (Stars made from helium burn up much more quickly than stars made from hydrogen).† In conclusion, The Strong Nuclear force is one of the four fundamental forces found in nature. The strong nuclear force is responsible for holding the neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus. The interactions are experienced only by particles called quarks and by elementary particles made from quarks (mesons, gluons). The discovery of the strong nuclear force was possible by the collective work of many physicists over many years. The strong force isn’t of that much of direct use for humans. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. If the strong nuclear force was slightly even weaker than it is, all the chemical elements needed for life would not be stable, and we, humans, would not seize to exist. The strong force isnt of that much of direct use for humans. However, the force is crucial to our everyday life. Ifthe strong nuclear force was weaker than it is, the chemical elements needed for life wouldn’t be stable, and we would not be here. On the other han d, if it were even slightly stronger than it is, all the hydrogen in the universe would have been burned in the big bang. As a result, there would be no prolonged stars like the sun, and no molecules like water. There would probably be no complex chemistry in the universe, and we would not seize to exist. Citations Fundamental Forces.Fundamental Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2013.   http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/funfor.html> . The Nucleus.The Nucleus. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2013. http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/physics/nucleus.html> . The Four Fundamental Forces.ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2013. http://library.thinkquest.org/27930/forces.htm> . The Strong Nuclear Force.The Strong Nuclear Force. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. http://aether.lbl.gov/elements/stellar/strong/strong.html> . The Strong Nuclear Force.The Star Garden. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Strong.html> . Nuclear Forces.Nuclear Forces. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. http://www.alternativephysics.org/book/NuclearForces.htm> . National Power Or Military Power? National Power Or Military Power? The international system today is an interplay of national power of different nations. This can be felt in the emerging world order. There has been a perceptible change, particularly during the last two decades, in the manner the nation states conduct international relations. Military alliances have given way to multilateral groupings, understandings and strategic partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly aware of the power or influence that they wield vis-à  -vis other nations.  [1]   They are also looking at the ways and means to use this national power to secure their vital interests. In the later part of last century, National Power was only considered to be military power as can be understood by the superpower status of Soviet Union. But the disintegration of the Soviet empire and changing face of world relations due to economic globalization changed the world perception and brought the term Comprehensive National Power. This term was more inclusive of the overall state of the affairs of a nation and a measure of its constituents could indicate the strength and weaknesses.  [2]   National Power has tangible and intangible elements. Geography, natural resources, industrial capacity, population, military power form the tangible parts while national character and morale complete the intangibles. Indias economy has contributed in the last two decades towards a major share of the National power. In fact, India has even demonstrated certain soft power by cooption and attraction of other nations to achieve some of its aims. The primary currencies of soft power are an actors values, culture, policies and institutions. Indias soft power is based on its social and cultural values, the Indian Diaspora abroad and its knowledge base. India is being considered a knowledge superpower and is well placed to leverage its position in international relations. However, the military has also contributed towards the soft power. A well-run military has been a source of attraction, and military-to-military cooperation and training programmes, for example, have established transnation al networks that enhance countrys soft power. METHODOLOGY Statement of Problem The growth notwithstanding, India cannot afford to be satisfied with its current status. The geopolitical situation in the region is unstable. Though Pakistan has fewer options left after it has been exposed as a hub of terror activities and a haven for wanted terrorists, still if cornered by the world pressure and the internal compulsions it will not think twice in a military option against India to divert the attention and bring in its all weather friend , China, into the picture. India can achieve its national aims only if the internal and external threats to its security is ensured. This situation can be understood with an analogy to game of soccer; a team may be having the best of strikers in their forward and midfielder players, who can score goals at will, but their efforts are inconsequential if the goalkeeper is not trained and equipped to save goals from adversary. Thus, in the changing geopolitical situation, it is pertinent to evaluate the share of constituents of National Power to ascertain the future dynamics of a nations aspirations and interests and the regional environment. India has already made tremendous progress in various fields to achieve soft power constituent to contribute towards National Power. Indian economy is showing positive growth and attracting strategic partnership with leading economies around the globe.India , now needs to develop the military constituent to further pursue its National aim. Hypothesis India needs to develop a potent Military capability by the year 2025 to be able to assert its National Power in keeping with the stated National objectives. Methods of Data Collection 9. The data for this dissertation has been collected from a large number of books, periodicals, magazines, newspapers, internet and research journals that are available in the Defence Services Staff College library. The data related to Indian Military Power has been collected from open sources only so as to avoid any classified information to be brought out. The Bibliography is attached as Appendix. Organisation of the Dissertation Apart from a chapter on the introduction and methodology, the dissertation has been organized under the following chapters:- CHAPTER 2. CONSTITUENTS OF INDIAN NATIONAL POWER Section 1. National Power. Section 2. Indias National Power. Section 3. Constituents Of Indian National Power. CHAPTER 3. MILITARY POWER Section 1. Elements of Military Power. Section 2. Present State Of Indian Defence Forces. Section 3. Defence Budget And Modernisation Program. CHAPTER 4. SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAS MILITARY POWER Section 1. Analysis. Section 2. Intra Organisaton Level. Section 3. Shortcoming As A National Instrument. Section 4. Recommendations . CHAPTER 5. DESIRED NATIONAL POWER BY 2025 Section 1. Geopolitical situation and regional environment In 2025. Section 2. Indias Predicted Growth By 2025. Section 3. Desired National Power. Chapter 2- Examining the constituent of Indian National Power. The present Indian standing in the world order is based on the soft power developed and the economic growth achieved by India. India as rising economy, offers excellent investment opportunity to the world. The democratic form of governance also projects India as stable and secure investment site in the long run. However we need to examine the constituents and their present share towards National Power. Chapter 3- Military Power. It itself comprises the tangibles and the intangibles. It can be broadly categorized in force capability and force employment. There has been a change in war fighting. The technological advancement ,weapon lethality, destructiveness and precision along with the information frontier has increased the cost factor of going to war. Thus there is a need to analyse the military power constituents to understand the importance towards national Power. Chapter 4- Analysis and Short comings of Indian Military Power. To suggest steps towards projecting a stronger military power the present capability needs to be analysed and the shortcoming to be highlighted. Chapter 5- Desired National Power by 2025. The regional environment in the near future entails proactive approach by India to project comprehensive national power to have secured borders and assured growth to achieve its national aims . CHAPTER 2 CONSTITUENTS OF NATIONAL POWER National Power 1. The international system today.is an interplay of national power of different nations. There has been a perceptible change.in the manner the nation states conduct International relations. Military alliances have given way to multilateral groupings, understandings and strategic partnerships. Nations are becoming increasingly.aware of the power or influence that they weild.vis-à  -vis other nations. 2. During 1960 and 70s most theorists.doing research on international relations avoided dealing.with phenomenon of power. National power was considered synonymous.with military power. This would explain to a great extent the superpower status.of erstwhile Soviet Union and its unexpected disintegration. Since then perception of national power.has undergone a change. It is called as comprehensive National power by the theorists which is a more inclusive term comprising all the facets of a nations resources which contribute towards its security. Defining National Power 3. National power is the ability of a nation with the use of which.it can get its will obeyed by other nations. It involves the capacity to use force.or threat of use of force over other nations. With the use of national power, a nation is able to control.the behavior of other nations in accordance with its own will. In other words, it denotes the ability of a nation.to fulfill its national goals. It also tells us how much powerful or weak.a particular nation is in securing its national goals. Basic Elements Of National Power 4. The basic elements of national power include diplomacy, economics, informational, soft power and the age old trustworthy element of military power. It can also be classified as comprising of tangible elements and intangible elements. Geography, natural resources, industrial capacities, population, military power form the tangible elements of national power and national character and morale complete the intangibles. Indias National Power 5. In international politics, the image of India till recently used to be in terms.of its perennial rivalry with Pakistan and as power confined to South Asia only. However, as result of the remarkable improvement.in Indias national strength over the last decade, consisting of.its hard and soft powers, the world has started rehyphenating India.with a rapidly growing China. The term rising India is a buzzword in the International Relations discourse nowadays. Indias national power has begun to rise steadily.since Pokhran-II. India unleashed a slew of path-breaking initiatives.in quick succession in 1998 (and beyond). It was from this year onwards that the idea of India being a great power,.first floated by Nehru, started to be reflected in its foreign policy. Admittedly, India shifted its foreign and economic policies.soon after the end of the Cold War in 1991 when it started broadbasing.its diplomacy, initiated economic reforms by dismantling the economic model.based on import substit ution, and went for market friendly policies. The economic reforms did give India economic stability.in the sense that India started growing at 6% annually.ever since the economic liberalization of early 1990s, however, political stability remained fragile. The country got much-needed political stability.at the center in March 1998 and a series of radical initiatives in quick succession beginning with the nuclear tests in the Pokhran desert of Rajasthan on May 11th and 13th 1998, was a grand strategic masterstroke by independent India. India initiated Multi-aligned/Great power diplomacy.for the first time in its independent history when it developed strategic partnerships.with all the great powers simultaneously, especially its relations with the United States and Japan, while retaining time-tested ties with Russia. India made institutional arrangements to its national security.when it set up the National Security.Advisory Board, National Security.Council, Nuclear Command Authority, developed a.nuclear doctrine, and so on. 6. More importantly, India developed a much needed strategic vision.whereby it redefined its geo-strategic.construct well beyond the mainland of South Asia. The comprehensive geo-strategic.construct included the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, Central Asia and the Asia-Pacific. In fact, the 1998 nuclear tests themselves were indicative of the fact that India had begun to appreciate the role of hard power in securing its national interests and also in making her influence heard in international politics. 7. The India, that China defeated.in 1962 was guided by a foreign policy canon of non-alignment.vis -à  -vis the superpower enmity, and it remained the cornerstone of Indias international.diplomacy for more than four decades. However, this foreign policy paradigm underwent.a U-turn when it metamorphosed into poly/multi-alignment under the new leadership.in New Delhi in 1998. The new foreign policy outlook.broadly had two components, namely, improving relations with the US and its Look East Policy-II. The turnaround in India-US relations from being estranged democracies during the Cold War to engaged democracies in the 2000s has played a central role in bringing out a shift in Chinas India posture over the last decade. India has been a democracy right since its birth as a modern nation-state in 1947. However, its sluggish economic growth and weak military profile that led to its defeat in 1962 seriously stained this aspect of Indias soft power. 8. With the rising India story, its democracy as an important component of its soft power has again come into the global limelight. India has more than 1 billion people. It is linguistically, culturally, racially, and religiously diverse, and it is growing economically at an enviable pace under democratic governmental institutions (except for the emergency period of 1975-77 when civil liberties were undermined). Its culture values peaceful coexistence, nonviolence, and religious tolerance. All of these factors, combined with the largest pool of English speakers outside the US, has increased Indias power of attraction without need for coercion or persuasion, a fact not lost on an envious, hard power-minded China. The country to which India has projected most of its soft power is the US, through the export of highly skilled manpower, consisting mainly of software developers, engineers, and doctors. 9. In military terms, post-1998 India has been enjoying strategic capital, in the sense that, unlike the rise of China, Indias military rise is not only not feared but it is felt to be desirable by the countries in the Asia-Pacific like Japan, Australia, South Korea, and ASEAN as a group. Most importantly even the US sees Indias military rise in its own interests.28 Interestingly, a rising India is making full use of this capital by emerging as a formidable military power over the last decade, apart from unveiling even more ambitious military plans for the future CHAPTER 3 MILITARY POWER Military Power 1. Military Power is military dimension of national power. National power embodies soft persuasive or attractive elements as well as its hard or military component. Military power can itself mean different things in different contexts; as military forces do different things ranging from defending national territory to invading other states; countering terrorists or insurgents, keeping the peace, enforcing economic sanctions, maintain domestic order. Proficiency in one task does not entail proficiency in all as good defenders of national territory can make poor peacekeepers and also may not be able to conquer neighbours. 2. Since beginning of civilization, military power has been the primary instruement nation states have used to control and dominate each other. With the growth of technology, the destructiveness of military power has reached apocalyptic proportions. 3. Throughout history, military power has been paramount and economic power a luxury. This has slowly changed to the point that the two roles have been reversed. Japan, China have relied on economic prosperity to finance formidable military forces. Conversely, erstwhile Soviet Union, Iraq and North Korea have relied on their military to build economic power with little or limited success. 4. Military power is the capacity to use force or threat of force to influence other states. Components of military power for a nation include number of military formations, armaments, organization, training, equipment, readiness, deployment and morale. Elements of Military Power 5. Elements of military power are worked out on the basis of military capability of nations. It includes numerical preponderance, technology and force employment. . Numerical preponderance has been exemplified in yesteryears; Napolean said , God is on the side of the big battalion 6. It is generally believed that states with larger population, more developed economies, larger military should prevail in battle. This is association of victory with material preponderance and beneath this lies the widespread perception that economic strength is precondition for military strength; that economic decline leads to military weakness and that economic policies merit co equal treatment with political and military considerations in national strategy making. Military preparedness requires a military (establishment) capable of supporting the foreign policy of a nation. Contributory factors are technology,leadership, quality and size of the armed forces. (a) Technology. The development and adoption of firearms, tanks, guns and aircraft have had a profound effect on the course of battles. To illustrate, if one reads the review of British operations during the initial stages of the Second World War, which Churchill gave in the secret session of parliament on 23 April 1942,one is struck by the fact that all defeats on land, on sea and in air have one common denominator-the disregard of technological capabilities being developed by Germans and the Japanese during the pre-war years. The U-boats played havoc with the British shipping and adversely affected their ability to move forces from one theatre of war to another, as also to sustain them. Conversely, the development of radar technology by the British during the war years gave them enormous advantage over their enemies. In the present-day context, capabilities in cyber warfare, space assets and smart strike weapons will give a great edge to the powers that are able to develop and operationalise such technologies. (b) Leadership. The quality of military leadership has always exerted a decisive influence upon national power. We have the examples of the military genius of Fredrick the Great, Napoleon, the futility of Maginot Line psychology of the French General Staff versus the blitzkrieg adopted by the German General Staff, and closer home the effect of superior military leadership led by Field Marshal SHFJ Manekshaw in Indias 1971 War with Pakistan. (c) Quality and Size of the Armed Forces. The importance of this factor is obvious. However, the question that has to be answered by the political leadership of the country is, how large a military establishment can a nation afford in view of its resources and commitments or national interests? CHAPTER 4 SHORTCOMINGS OF INDIAN MILITARY POWER Much has been written and said about the potential for Indian military power to play a greater role on the world stage, and perhaps check Chinas expanding capabilities in the future.National Security has attained multi-faceted dimensions with wider challenges in diverse fields.There has been growing understandings of these challenges and consequently measures are being taken to overcome the same. Indias remarkable economic growth and newfound access to arms from abroad have raised the prospect of a major rearmament of the country. But without several policy and organizational changes, Indias efforts to modernize its armed forces will not alter the countrys ability to deal with critical security threats. Indias military modernization needs a transparent, legitimate and efficient procurement process. Further, a chief of defense staff could reconcile the competing priorities across the three military services. Finally, Indias defense research agencies need to be subjected to greater ove rsight. Indias rapid economic growth and newfound access to military technology, especially by way of its rapprochement with the United States, have raised hopes of a military revival in the country. Against this optimism about the rise of Indian military power stands the reality that India has not been able to alter its military-strategic position despite being one of the worlds largest importers of advanced conventional weapons for three decades. Civil-military relations in India have focused too heavily on one side of the problem how to ensure civilian control over the armed forces, while neglecting the other how to build and field an effective military force. This imbalance in civil-military relations has caused military modernization and reforms to suffer from a lack of political guidance, disunity of purpose and effort and material and intellectual corruption. The Effects of Strategic Restraint Sixty years after embarking on a rivalry with Pakistan, India has not been able to alter its strategic relationship with a country less than one-fifth its size. Indias many counterinsurgencies have lasted twenty years on an average, double the worldwide average. Since the 1998 nuclear tests, reports of a growing missile gap with Pakistan have called into question the quality of Indias nuclear deterrent. The high point of Indian military history the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971- therefore, stands in sharp contrast to the persistent inability of the country to raise effective military forces. No factor more accounts for the haphazard nature of Indian military modernization than the lack of political leadership on defense, stemming from the doctrine of strategic restraint. Key political leaders rejected the use of force as an instrument of politics in favor of a policy of strategic restraint that minimized the importance of the military. The Government of India held to its strong anti-militarism despite the reality of conflict and war that followed independence. Much has been made of the downgrading of the service chiefs in the protocol rank, but of greater consequence was the elevation of military science and research as essential to the long-term defense of India over the armed forces themselves. Nehru invited British physicist P.M.S. Blackett to examine the relationship between science and defense. Blackett came back with a report that called for capping Indian defense spending at 2 percent of GDP and limited military modernization. He also recommended state funding and ownership of military research laboratories and established his protà ©gà ©, Daulat Singh Kothari, as the head of the labs. Indian defense spending decreased during the 1950s. Of the three services, the Indian Navy received greater attention with negotiations for the acquisition of Indias first aircraft carrier. The Indian Air Force acquired World War II surplus Canberra transport. The Indian Army, the biggest service by a wide margin, went to Congo on a UN peacekeeping mission, but was neglected overall. India had its first defense procurement scandal when buying old jeeps and experienced its first civil-military crisis when an army chief threatened to resign protesting political interference in military matters. The decade culminated in the governments forward policy against China, which Nehru foisted on an unprepared army, and led to the war of 1962 with China that ended in a humiliating Indian defeat. The foremost lesson of 1962 was that India could not afford further military retrenchment. The Indian government launched a significant military expansion program that doubled the size of the army and raised a fighting air force. With the focus shifting North, the Indian Navy received less attention. A less recognized lesson of the war was that political interference in military matters ought to be limited. The military and especially the army asked for and received operational and institutional autonomy, a fact most visible in the wars of 1965 and 1971. The problem, however, was that the political leadership did not suddenly become more comfortable with the military as an institution; they remained wary of the possibility of a coup detat and militarism more generally. The Indian civil-military relations landscape has changed marginally since. In the eighties, there was a degree of political-military confluence in the Rajiv Gandhi government: Rajiv appointed a military buff, Arun Singh, as the minister of state for defense. At the same time, Krishnaswami Sundarji, an exceptional officer, became the army chief. Together they launched an ambitious program of military modernization in response to Pakistani rearmament and nuclearization. Pakistans nuclearization allowed that country to escalate the subconventional conflict in Kashmir while stemming Indian ability to escalate to a general war, where it had superiority. India is yet to emerge from this stability-instability paradox. The puzzle of Brasstacks stands in a line of similar decisions. In 1971, India did not push the advantage of its victory in the eastern theatre to the West. Instead, New Delhi, underuberrealist Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, signed on to an equivocal agreement at Simla that committed both sides to peaceful resolution of future disputes without any enforcement measures. Indias decision to wait 24 years between its first nuclear test in 1974 and the second set of tests in 1998 is equally puzzling. Why did it not follow through after the 1974 test, and why did it test in 1998? Underlying these puzzles is a remarkable preference for strategic restraint. Indian leaders simply have not seen the use of force as a useful instrument of politics. This foundation of ambivalence informs Indian defense policy, and consequently its military modernization and reform efforts. To be sure, military restraint in a region as volatile as South Asia is wise and has helped persuade the great powers to accommodate Indias rise, but it does not help military planning. Together with the separation of the armed forces from the government, divisions among the services and between the services and other related agencies, and the inability of the military to seek formal support for policies it deems important, Indias strategic restraint has served to deny political guidance to the efforts of the armed forces to modernize. As wise as strategic restraint may be, Pakistan, Indias primary rival, hardly believes it to be true. Islamabad prepares as if India were an aggressive power and this has a real impact on Indias security. Domestic And Regional Constraints India faces several daunting domestic and border challenges within its own neighborhood that may prevent it from thinking more globally including the unresolved issue of Kashmir, an increasingly grave Maoist threat, Islamic terrorism from Pakistan, and unresolved border issues with China which broke out in war in 1962. Beijings effort to beef up its presence in South Asia is also seen as challenging Indian dominance there. The Lack of Strategy Indias military modernization remains, and likely will continue to be, an a-strategic pursuit of new technology with little vision. There is a whole host of problems that the nation faces, including: Little political guidance from the civilian leadership to the military. This is true even on the general issue of what Indias major goals should be. Even the Indian navy, which is often assumed to be the most forward thinking institution within Indias military, does not see itself as more than a naval blockade vis-à  -vis Pakistan. Lack of organizational and institutional reforms. The need to reprioritize resources is never addressed, what is addressed is the procurement of new material, thus making modernization merely an exercise in linear expansion. No legitimate and transparent procurement system. As a result, purchases are often ridden with scandals, corrupt, delayed and highly politicized. Indias Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) is also a failed organization that is ideologically corrupt, but there has not been an honest attempt to put it under public scrutiny. Imbalance in Civil-Military Relations What suffices for a military modernization plan is a wish list of weapon systems amounting to as much as $100 billion from the three services and hollow announcements of coming breakthroughs from the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), the premier agency for military research in India. The process is illustrative. The armed forces propose to acquire certain weapon systems. The political leadership and the civilian bureaucracy, especially the Ministry of Finance, react to these requests, agreeing on some and rejecting others. A number of dysfunctions ensue. First, the services see things differently and their plans are essentially uncoordinated. Coming off the experience of the Kargil war and Operation Parakram, the Indian Army seems to have arrived at a Cold Start doctrine, seeking to find some fighting space between subconventional conflict and nuclear exchange in the standoff with Pakistan. The doctrine may not be official policy, but it informs the armys wish list, where attack helicopters, tanks and long-range artillery stand out as marquee items. The Indian Air Force (IAF), meanwhile, is the primary instrument of the countrys nuclear deterrent. The IAFs close second role is air superiority and air defense. Close air support, to which the IAF has belatedly agreed and which is essential to the armys Cold Start doctrine, is a distant fourth. The Indian Navy wants to secure the countrys sea-lanes of communications, protect its energy supplies and guard its trade routes. It wants further to be the vehicle of Indian naval diplomacy and sees a role in the anti-piracy efforts in the Malacca Straits and the Horn of Africa. What is less clear is how the Indian Navy might contribute in the event of a war with Pakistan. The navy would like simply to brush past the problem of Pakistan and reach for the grander projects. Accordingly, the Indian Navys biggest procurement order is a retrofitted aircraft carrier from Russia. Indias three services have dramatically different views of what their role in Indias security should be, and there is no political effort to ensure this coordination. Cold Start remains an iffy proposition. Indias nuclear deterrent remains tethered to a single delivery system: fighter aircraft. Meanwhile, the Indian Armys energies are dissipated with counterinsurgency duties, which might increase manifold if the army is told to fight the rising leftist insurgency, the Naxalites. And all this at a time when the primary security threat to the country has been terrorism. After the Mumbai attacks, the Indian government and the people of India are said to have resolved to tackle the problem headlong, but today the governments minister in charge of internal security, Palaniappan Chidambaram, is more under siege himself than seizing the hidden enemy. Second, despite repeated calls for and commissions into reforms in the higher defense structure, planning, intelligence, defense production and procurement, the Indian national security establishment remains fragmented and uncoordinated. The government and armed forces have succeeded in reforms primed by additions to the defense budget but failed to institute reforms that require changes in organization and priorities. The Kargil Review Committee, and the Group of Ministers report that followed, for example, recommended a slew of reforms. The changes most readily implemented were those that created new commands, agencies and task forces, essentially linear expansion backed by new budgetary allocations. The changes least likely to occur were those required changes in the hierarchy. The most common example of tough reform is the long-standing recommendation for a chief of defense staff. A military chief, as opposed to the service chiefs, could be a solution to the problem that causes the three services not to reconcile their pr Gas Sensing Properties of Te Thin Films: Thickness and UV Gas Sensing Properties of Te Thin Films: Thickness and UV Thickness and UV irradiation effects on the gas sensing properties of Te thin films Abstract In this research, tellurium thin films were investigated for use as hydrogen sulfide gas sensors. To this end, a tellurium thin film has been deposited on Al2o3  substrates by thermal evaporation, and the influence of thickness on the sensitivity of the tellurium thin film for measuring H2S gas is studied. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, scanning electron microscope(SEM) and Raman Spectrometer were utilized for characterizing the prepared samples. XRD patterns indicate that as the thickness increases, the crystallization improves. Observing the images obtained by SEM,  it  is  seen  that the grain size increases as the thickness increases, and consequently, fewer defects will be seen in the surface of the film. Studying the effect of thickness on H2S gas measurement, it became obvious that as the thickness increases, the sensitivity decreases and the response and recovery time increases. Studying the thermal influence of the thin film while measuring H2S gas,  it become s obvious  that as the detection temperature of the thin film increases, sensitivity and the response and recovery times reduce. To improve the response and recovery time of the tellurium thin film for measuring H2S gas, the influence of UV radiation while measuring H2S gas was also investigated. The results indicate that the response and recovery times strongly decrease  using UV radiation. Introduction Tellurium is a P type semiconductor with narrow band gap and a gap energy of 0.35eV which makes it ideal for use in thin film transistors [1], gas sensors [2-4], optical information storage [5] and shields in passive radiative cooling [6]. Recently, it has been shown that the tellurium thin film is sensitive to some toxic gases like H2S [7]. Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic and corrosive gas which is formed in coal mines, oil and gas industries, chemical products plants, and the sewers. Exposure to small amounts of this gas (less 50 ppm) causes headache, poor memory, loss of appetite and irritability, while exposure to large amounts (most of 500 ppm) will cause death after 30-60 minutes [8]. So far, various semiconductor metal oxides have been  produced  for detecting H2S gas such as SnO2, WO3, and CeO2  [9-11]. The main problem of these sensors is that they  require high temperature for measuring H2S gas, and this high temperature will shorten the life of the sensor[12]. Measurin g gas through semiconductor metal oxide depends upon parameters like thickness of the thin film, deposition temperature, and the substrate  material. So far, few reports have been issued about the sensitivity of the tellurium thin film to some reducing and oxidizing gases such as NO2, CO, NH3, and H2S [4,7,13,14]. In this research, the influence of the thickness of the tellurium thin film on detecting H2S gas and also the influence of the film temperature and UV radiation while measuring H2S gas have been studied. Experiment details Tellurium thin films with thicknesses of 100, 200, and 300 nm measured by Quartz digital thickness gauge, were deposited on Al2O3  substrate by thermal evaporation of pure tellurium in a tungsten crucible. Substrates were cleaned for 30 minutes by alcohol and acetone in ultrasonic bath. The initial pressure of the vacuum chamber and the temperature of substrate while depositing were respectively 3Ãâ€"10-5  mbar and 373K. The growth rate of the film and the deposition area were respectively 5nm/s and 100mm2. Gold electrodes were deposited on the surface of film through thermal evaporation and copper wires were attached to them by silver paste. The microstructure of the films was characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD). The morphology of the films surface was determined by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Sensor response to various concentration of H2S gas was studied in a container made of stainless steel with a volume of 250cm3  .The electrical resistance of the senso rs was measured by a multimeter as a function of time. Gas limit  detection was performed for the films with different thicknesses and at different environment temperatures. The sensors were also exposed to UV radiation while detecting H2S gas. The mechanism of gas detection was investigated by Raman spectroscopy technique. The spectra were recorded before and after exposure to the gas. Raman spectra of the films were recorded in back scattering geometry with a spectral resolution of 3 cm-1. The 785 nm line of Ar+  laser was used  for excitation. Results and Discussion XRD patterns of tellurium films with different thicknesses are shown in fig. 1. In this figure, the peaks  denoted  with star are related to Al2O3  substrate. At 100 nm,  Te thickness peak of low intensity is observed at 27.77 °Ã‚  which is related to Te (101) with hexagonal structure. At 200 nm, in addition to Te (101), another peak corresponding to Te (100) appears at 23.15 °. Finally, besides Te (100) and Te (101), a new peak is observed at 40.78 °which is related to Te (110) with hexagonal structure. From the XRD results, it can be inferred that, thickness increases  the  results in an increase of film crystallinity due to the increase of the number of planes that generate diffraction. Fig. 2 shows the SEM images of prepared Te films at different  thicknesses.  [S1]At 100 nm, the grains are separated from each other  by a  large distance, thereby forming discontinuous and rough surface. Increasing film thickness leads to an increase of surface homogeneit y and continuity, grain size increase  as well. Fig. 3 depicts the resistance variation of the tellurium thin films with different thicknesses at room temperature before exposure to H2S gas. It can be seen that the film resistance decrease with thickness increase due to reduction of irregularity in grain arrangement and inhomogeneity on  the  film surface,  which leads to a better charge carrier mobility. The sensitivity of the films to H2S is given by: S=   Where Ra  and Rg  are the electrical resistance of the film in the air and the H2S respectively. Fig. 4 shows the effect of Te film thickness on sensitivity to 8ppm of H2S at room temperature.  Note that the film sensitivity decreases  with  an increase in  thickness. To explain this behavior, it is worth mentioning that the proposed mechanism for H2S gas measurement is as follows: the oxygen in the air is adsorbed by the film surface, especially in the grain boundaries and film porosities. After adsorption, oxygen reacts with Te film surface and based on the film temperature, it can be ionized into O2, O2-, O  (in the temperatures less than 150CËÅ ¡ the ionization form is O2). These forms of oxygen ionization increase the film hole density which means  a reduction of Ra  in P type semiconductor such as Te. As H2S gas is added, it reacts with ionized oxygen  and the result will be  the  return of electrons inside the film and reduction of the hole numbers and increase of Rg  resistance. The reactions are shown below: O2(gas) O2(ads)(1) O2(ads)+ e O2(ads)(2) H2S(gas)+O2(ads) H2(gas)+SO2(gas)+ e(3) At 100 nm Te thickness, the presence of a high density of grain boundaries and defects results in a high H2S gas adsorption which causes noticeable variations in film electrical resistance,  indicating an increase of sensitivity. At higher thickness, where the grain boundary and defects densities decrease,  the changes in resistance are intangible involving a decrease in the sensitivity as shown in fig. 4. The other important characteristic of sensor is its selectivity. The sensitivity on exposure to 10 ppm of CO, NH3  and NO was found to be 3 %,40 % and -67 % (negative sign indicates reduction in resistance), respectively[]. Thus we see that the Te films have much larger sensitivity towards H2S gas in comparison to other gases. Fig. 5 shows the response kinetics of Te films at different thickness (100 nm and 200 nm) after exposure to 8ppm H2S. Considering the response and recovery times, the times for reaching 90% of steady-state values of Ra  and Rg  respectively  can b e defined. It can be clearly seen in fig. 5 that thickness increase leads to an increase of response and recovery times. The former and the latter are due to high adsorption rate of H2S and O2  gases, respectively, at 100 nm by the great numbers of grain boundaries and defects [15]. Fig. 6 shows Raman spectra of 100 nm Te sample before and after exposure to 8 ppm H2S gas at room temperature. In both spectra, peaks at 123, 143 and 267 cm-1  are related to tellurium. Two other peaks  observed in sample before inducing H2S gas  at 680 and 811 cm-1  are assigned to TeO2  [16].  Notice that the intensity of oxide phase is much less than that of Te phase indicating that a low fraction of Te film is oxidized,  which  is  due to Te atoms on the surface [17]. After exposure to H2S gas,  based on  the proposed  reaction mechanism  the TeO2  peaks have almost disappeared. In addition, no peak corresponding to H2S or compounds of sulfur or hydrogen is detected in f ilm after exposure to H2S gas. Fig. 7 shows the sensors sensitivity as a function of H2S gas concentration for 100, 200 and 300 nm samples at room temperature. The film to 100 nm Te thickness presents a linear response from  the  8 to 34 ppm range and the film sensitivity seems to saturate at higher concentration. As expected, from fig. 7  it can be seen  that the sensitivity decreases as the film thickness is increased. Figure 8 shows the results related to response and recovery time for all samples  while being exposed to various concentrations  of H2S gas  at  room temperature. Studying the results  it is  clear  that as the H2S gas concentration increases, the response time decreases and the recovery time increases.  This  is because as H2S gas concentration increases, the probability of a reaction between gas and ionized oxygen becomes more probable, and more reactions  will be observed  in a shorter time which causes the resistance to change faste r and finally reach a constant level. As the concentration goes up, more H2S gas molecules are absorbed and their desorption requires a longer time. The resistance of different samples as a function of detection temperature before exposure to H2S gas  is shown in fig. 9. In all thickness, a decrease of resistivity is observed with temperature increase due to electrical properties of semiconductor, as well as increase of oxidation reaction rate. In the case  of  300 nm Te films the variation of resistance is insignificant because of  the  very low resistance of this sample. Fig.  10 shows the results related to sensitivity as a function of temperature while being exposed to 8ppm of H2S gas. Investigating the results,  it is found that temperature rise leads to reductions in  sensitivity in all samples, because the number of charge carriers in samples increases as  the  temperature rises and as a result, when samples are exposed to H2S gas, no tangible resistance c hange is observed and sensitivity decreases [18]. In samples with 300nm thickness and with temperatures above 90C °Ã‚  there is no sensitivity against H2S gas,  since the number of charge carriers is so  high  that their change is never tangible by reaction with H2S gas. Fig. 11 shows the recovery and response times as a function of temperature while being exposed  to  8 ppm H2S gas. In all samples,  as the temperature rises the response and recovery time decreases. Overall, two factors are effective for a reaction: first, the molecules which are going to take part in the reaction must have a lot of energy, second, they must collide with one another in an appropriate direction. Temperature rise causes an increase in energy and more effective collisions will take place between reactants, and the response and recovery time decrease. To study the effect of UV irradiation on the sensor properties during the gas detection, samples are simultaneously exposed to 8 ppm H2S gas and UV radiation  at  room temperature. Fig. 12 shows a comparison between the sensor sensitivity of the UV exposed  and unexposed cases as a function of Te film thickness. It is obvious that application of UV radiation results in a dramatic reduction of sensors sensitivity. As it is well-know, UV radiation creates supplementary charge carriers by an excess of electron-hole pairs formation.  Increase of charge carriers number  involves a decrease of resistance such that the changes of resistance  are  not tangible while reacting with H2S gas. Fig. 13 presents the recovery and response times as a function of H2S gas concentration before and after exposure to UV radiation.  It is observed  that the recovery and response times strongly depend on UV radiation. These two parameters decrease with UV radiation due to creation of electron-hole pairs. The created electrons react with adsorbed oxygen, so the number of ionized oxygen reacting with H2S gas increase, which can result in an increase of reaction rate between oxygen and H2S gas. The above explanations can be summarized in the following reactions: O2(gas) O2(ads)(4) O2(ads) + e O2(ads)(5) hÃŽ ½ e + h O2  (ads)+ e 2O(ads)(6) H2S(gas) + O  (ads) H2(gas) + SO(gas) +e(7) It is worth  noting that the increase of UV radiation intensity has no effect on sensitivity,  response and recovery times of Te sensors. Also, to evaluate sensor stability, the samples of 100 nm and 200 nm Te film  were  subjected to 8 ppm H2S at room temperature  for 60 days, then  their basic resistance and sensitivity were measured as shown in fig. 14. The results indicate that both resistance and sensitivity of sensors remain  nearly  constant, confirming suitability of Te films for use as sensor. Conclusion In this work, thickness effect of Te films for H2S gas sensing are investigated. A strong dependence  on  electrical resistance and sensitivity to Te film thickness is observed.  This  means that increasing the thickness leads to a decrease of sensor sensitivity and increase of response and recovery times.  Considering  the sensing mechanism of Te thin films which is based on the interaction of ionized oxygen with H2S gas, the grain boundaries and the surface roughness could be considered as active sites for trapping the gas molecules. Thickness increase leads to a decrease of these active sites. The results show that although the Te sensor can operate at room temperature, a decrease of response-recovery times can be obtained at higher operating temperatures. Raman spectroscopy shows that adsorbed oxygen on the surface of Te films can be removed after exposure to H2S gas,  leading to changes in the film resistance,  UV radiation,  as well as response-recovery times. The prepared sensors present a stability in sensitivity and resistance for 60 days after exposure to H2S gas which confirms  their ability to  be  used  as H2S gas sensor.  

Applied linguistics Essay

Applied linguistics 1 History The term applied linguistics dates back at least to the 1940s in the USA when linguists applied analytical methods to the practical problems of producing grammars and phrasebooks and developing language courses. 2 What Is Applied Linguistics? Applied linguistics: (1) was interdisciplinary, drawing on psychology, sociology, and pedagogy as well as theoretical linguistics; (2) included a range of fields including lexicography, stylistics, speech pathol ogy, translation, language policy, and planning among others; (3) performed a mediating function between theory and practice. Ð pplied linguistics must take into consideration the nature of language and the nature of the particular world in which language is used, the beliefs, social institutions, and culture of its users, and how these influence language use. Ideally, the job of an applied linguist is to diagnose a problem in real-world language use, bring the insights of linguistics to bear on the problem, and suggest solutions. 3 Relation of Theory and Practice: the Case of Language Teaching The applied linguist stands at the intersection of theory and practice, but it is not always clear how the applied linguist mediates between the two. This suggests a one-way street in which theory is at the starting point, and the applied linguist directs traffic from theory to practice. Influenced by structuralism in linguistics and by behaviorism in psychology, applied linguists believed that language was a collection of discrete learnable structures, speaking was primary, and learning a language was a matter of correct habit formation. To inculcate correct habits, teachers drilled students incessantly in correct pronunciation and patterned practice of grammatical structures. Under the influence of the theoretical work of Noam Chomsky, applied  linguists saw language learning as a cognitive process of hypothesis testing, in which errors indicated the stage of the language learner’s interlanguage. Instead, knowing a language means knowing how to communicate in the language; it involves acquiring â€Å"communicative competence. † A richer model of the relationship among theory, practice, and applied linguistics sees it as a two-way street in which the applied linguist directs traffic from theory into practice and from practice into theory. Similarly in applied linguistics, practice provides a testing ground for theory,  but it is more than that: real-world language use provides new questions and issues requiring new theories. 4 Recent Range of Inquiry Nevertheless, the central characteristics of applied linguistics remain: (1) focus on contextualized language use; (2) application of theory to practice and vice versa; (3) practical problem-based approach; (4) multidisciplinary perspective. 4. 1 Second language teaching and cross-cultural linguistics 2Accurate description of language use with the ultimate goal of teaching has motivated research in cross-cultural discourse and pragmatics. Concentration on  spoken language, combined with speech act theory among others, has engendered numerous research projects in applied linguistics investigating specific speech acts such as making requests and apologies in different languages and cultures. Applied linguists have examined the development of pragmatic competence in second language learners and the possibilities for teaching pragmatics. 4. 2 Language use in context: contributions of discourse analysis Outside the area of language pedagogy, the burgeoning of discourse analysis has provided a means whereby linguistic insight can be applied to real-world situations. Other institutional and professional settings, too, have come under scrutiny from applied linguists using theoretical constructs to explain how language is used in real-world settings such as commerce, employment, and public services. A field that has developed considerably in recent years in response to societal concerns is the investigation of language and gender. Recent empirical studies have enriched understanding of the interrelationship of language and gender and demonstrated that generalizations about male and female speech are unreliable when the particular communicative contexts in which the speech occurs have not been examined. Other work has examined gender and language cross-culturally and in specific institutional settings. 4. 3 Language maintenance and endangered languages and dialects The work of applied linguists on endangered or minority languages and dialects brings together field linguistics, anthropology, sociolinguistics and education. For example, a longitudinal study of language use and cultural context draws together sociolinguistic research into language use, research in language socialization, and second language acquisition research into educational discourse. It is not only minority languages that are under threat, but also dialects. 2. Contemporary linguistic approaches: Clinical, forensic, computational linguistics ( Ð ²Ã'‹Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã' Ã »Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °Ã'  )( 29, 30, 25) We have chosen to focus on four relatively popular areas of inquiry: †¢ syntactic parsing; †¢ discourse analysis; †¢ computational morphology and phonology; †¢ corpus-based methods. Parsing and discourse analysis have had the longest continuous history of investigation. Computational morphology and phonology began to grow as a separate discipline in the mid-1980s. Corpus-based approaches were investigated as early as the 1960s. 1 Parsing (Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ±Ã ¾Ã'€) Parsing is the act of determining the â€Å"syntactic structure† of a sentence. The goal is to represent â€Å"who did what to whom† in the sentence. Parsing involves tagging 3the words with an appropriate syntactic category and determining their relationships to each other. Words are grouped into phrase-like constituents, which are arranged into clauses and sentences. Machine translation systems employ parsing to derive representations of the input that are sufficient for transfer from the source to target language at either the syntactic or semantic level. A great deal of attention – to the application of syntactic parsing models for language modeling for automatic speech recognition. 2 Discourse Analysis. The area of discourse analysis is concerned with inferring the intended meanings of utterances. In order for the dialogue participants to successfully carry out a dialogue, they must be able to recognize the intentions of the other participant’s utterances, and to produce their responses in such a way that will enable the other participant(s) to recognize their intentions. A recipe is a generic template for performing a particular action. The recipe library contains a collection of generic recipes, and during discourse understanding, the plan inference module attempts to infer utterance intentions and relationships using  information provided by this library. 3 Computational Morphology and Phonology Roughly speaking, the topics can be classified into computational morphology, which treats the analysis of word structure; and computational phonology, which, deals with the changes in sound patterns that take place when words are put together. 4 Corpus-based Methods The word corpus in linguistics is typically a collection of texts. Corpora have been widely used by linguists to identify and analyze language phenomena, and to verify or refute claims about language. However, a corpus also reveals important  quantitative information about the distribution of various language phenomena. 29 Clinical Linguistics Clinical linguistics is the application of the linguistic sciences to the study of language disability. 1 Identifying Linguistic Symptoms Attention has now come to be focused on important symptoms of language disability, and to those aspects of the problem which have been ignored or misdiagnosed. â€Å"Less noticeable† refers to any feature other than the audible qualities of pronunciation, the order and omission of surface grammatical elements, and the actual items which constitute vocabulary. These features exclude  most of the properties of phonological systems, the sense relations between lexical items, the constraints operating on discourse in interaction, and the many ramifications of underlying syntactic structure. All of these play a major part in identifying the various kinds of language disability. The use of a clinical linguistic frame of reference has also enabled people to make progress in identifying disorders of language comprehension. That requires careful testing and the controlling of variables. Disorders of a pragmatic kind, likewise, 4 have often remained undiagnosed, or have been misdiagnosed as problems of a  psychological or social behavioral type. 2 The Role of Clinical Linguistics 2. 2 Description A major area of clinical linguistic research has been to provide ways of describing and analyzing the linguistic behavior of patients, and of the clinicians and others who interact with them. 2. 3 Diagnosis An important aim of clinical linguistics is to provide a classification of patient linguistic behaviors. This can provide an alternative diagnostic model, and one which is more able to provide insights about intervention in cases where there is no clear evidence of any medical condition. 2. 4 Assessment (Ð ¾Ã'†Ð µÃ ½Ã ºÃ °). Clinical linguistics has also been much involved in devising more sophisticated assessments of abnormal linguistic behavior. A diagnosis tells us what is â€Å"wrong† with a patient; an assessment tells us just how seriously the patient is â€Å"wrong. † 2. 5 Intervention The ultimate goal is to formulate hypotheses for the remediation (Ð ¾Ã ·Ã ´Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ) of abnormal linguistic behavior. Not all aspects of a patient’s problem are directly relevant to the need for linguistically based intervention, clinical linguistics can help clinicians to make an informed judgment about â€Å"what to teach next,† and to monitor the outcome of an intervention hypothesis, as  treatment proceeds. To a large extent, moving well beyond the patient’s language, to include an investigation of the language used by the person(s) carrying out the intervention, the kind of teaching materials used, and the setting in which the interaction takes place. 3 Linguistic Insights The chief aim of clinical linguistics is to provide the clinician with increasing levels of insight and confidence in arriving at linguistic decisions. The three pillars of any clinical linguistic approach: description – grading – intervention. All change needs to be regularly monitored, to demonstrate that progress is being made – this  is the task of assessment. The keeping of comprehensive linguistic records is a further priority, without which the efficacy of intervention can never be demonstrated. Forensic Linguistics Now linguists also have begun examining voice identification, authorship of written documents, unclear jury instructions, the asymmetry of power in courtroom exchanges, lawyer–client communication breakdown, the nature of perjury, problems in written legal discourse, defamation, trademark infringement, courtroom interpretation and translation difficulties, the adequacy of warning  labels, and the nature of tape recorded conversation used as evidence. 1 Trademark Infringement Typically, they respond to requests of attorneys to help them with their law cases. 2 Product Liability 5But the linguist, calling on knowledge of discourse analysis, semantics, and pragmatics, can determine the extent to which the message was clear and unambiguous and point out the possible meanings that the message presents. Once this is done, it is up to the attorney to determine whether or not to ask the linguist to testify at trial. 3 Speaker Identification Linguists have been used by attorneys in matters of voice identification. If the tapes are of sufficient quality, spectographic analysis is possible. If not, the linguist may rely on training and skills in phonetics to make the comparison. 4 Authorship of Written Documents Law enforcement agencies process provide a â€Å"psychological profile† of the person. Calling on knowledge of language indicators of such things as regional and social dialect, age, gender, education, and occupation, linguists analyze documents for broad clues to the identity of the writer. Stylistic analysis centers on a writer’s habitual language features over which the writer has little or no conscious awareness. 5 Criminal Cases Suspects are recorded with court authorized wire taps placed that none of the speakers is aware of being taped, or by using body microphones and engage suspects in conversation. If the law enforcement agency is concerned about the adequacy of the language evidence that they have gathered, they may call on a linguist to make transcripts of the conversations, analyze them. The tape recorded conversation itself points to the use of the other tools of the forensic linguist, including syntax, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, dialectology, and discourse analysis. 3. Discourse analysis (17) Discourse analysis is concerned with the contexts in and the processes through which we use oral and written language to specific audiences, for specific purposes, in specific settings. 1 What Is Discourse? A Preliminary Characterization The big D concerns general ways of viewing the world and general ways of behaving, the small d concerns actual, specific language use. Discourse analysis emphasizes that language is not merely a self-contained system of symbols but a mode of doing, being, and becoming. Discourse research can be divided into 2 major types of inquiries: (1) why some but not other linguistic forms are used on  given occasions and (2) what are the linguistic resources for accomplishing various social, affective, and cognitive actions and interactions. 2 Communicative Motivations for the Selection of Linguistic Forms Language is inseparable from other aspects of our life and that the selection of linguistic forms should be explained in terms of authentic human communicative needs (i. e. , social, interactional, cognitive, affective needs). 2. 1 Context 6One of the first questions is what is happening in this stretch of talk, who the participants are, where they are, and why they are there. Linguistic choices are  systematically motivated by contextual factors. Context is a complex of 3 dimensions: First, the field of social action in which the discourse is embedded. Second, the set of role relations among the participants. And third, the role of language in the interaction. In this view, language is a system of choices made on the basis of a contextual configuration which accounts for field, tenor, and mode. 2. 3 Speech act What kind of speech act utterance is and whether this act is accomplished through direct or indirect means. Speech act theory says that language is used not only to describe things but to do things as well. Further, utterances act on 3 different levels: the literal level (locutionary act), the implied level (illocutionary act), and the consequence of the implied act (perlocutionary act). 2. 4 Scripts / plans Script is to describe the knowledge that we have of the structure of stereotypical event sequences. If such knowledge can be described in a formal way, then we may have a theory of how humans process natural language. 2. 5 Referentiality How entities (Ð »Ã ¸Ã'†Ð °) are referred to in utterances. Some analysts are interested in how referential forms make a stretch of discourse cohesive in form and coherent in meaning. 2. 6 Topicality and thematicity What is an utterance about, what is the starting point of a message, what is the focus of a message. Topic – the part of the utterance about which something is said. Prague School linguists developed the functional sentence perspective which says that word order has to do with how informative each element in the utterance is – communicative dynamism, or CD. A sentence begins with elements with the lowest CD and ends with those with the highest CD. Theme is the part of the utterance with the lowest degree of CD. 2. 7 Sequential organization The sequential context of the utterance. Discourse analysts have sought to explain linguistic choices in terms of ethnographic contexts, knowledge structure, rhetorical organization, communicative intentions, textual organization, information management and sequential organization, among others. Discourse Analysis, Linguistics, and More Discourse analysts research various aspects of language not as an end in itself, but as a means to explore ways in which language forms are shaped by and shape the contexts of their use. Further, discourse analysis draws upon not only linguistics, but also anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, cognitive science, and  other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences concerned with human communication. Discourse analysis promotes a view of language which says that 7 Resource Center Saved Recents Uploads My Answers Account Products Home Essays Drive Answers Texty About Company Legal Site Map Contact Us Advertise  ©2016 StudyMode. com HOME  > ESSAYS  > LINGUISTICS  > LINGUISTICS Linguistics Applied linguistics, Discourse analysis, Language By maor87 Apr 17, 2015 6489Words 150Views More info PDF View Text View PAGE8 OF 18 language use is not only reflective of other aspects of our lives but is also constitutive of them. As it draws insights from various disciplines, it also contributes to interfacing linguistics with other domains of inquiries, such that we might now investigate the construction of culture through conversation or program computers to generate interactive texts based on our understanding of the rules and principles of human interaction. It focusses on language as it is used by real people with real intentions, emotions. 4. Linguistics and pragmatics (16) The Puzzle of Language Use: How Do We Ever Understand Each Other? Pragmatics is the study of communication – the study of how language is used. This study is based on the assumption of a division between knowledge of language and the way it is used; and the goal of pragmatics is providing a set of principles which dictate how knowledge of language and general reasoning interact in the process of language understanding, to give rise to different kinds of effects which can be achieved in communication. Pragmatics as the Application of Conversational Principles to Sentence Meanings The starting point for studies in pragmatics is the mismatch between what words â€Å"mean, and what speakers â€Å"mean† by using them. There is the knowledge of  language, which dictates the meanings of words and the ways in which they can combine. This is called the encoded meaning. On the other hand, there are pragmatic principles which enable a hearer to establish some different interpretation – the nonencoded part of meaning. Moreover, given the full array of rhetorical effects such as metaphor, irony, etc. , all of which are uses of expressions in context in some sense, the proposed approach maintains a natural separation between literal uses of words, which are reflected in sentence-meanings, and the various non-literal uses to which they may be put. Knowledge of language: sentence-meanings as partial specifications of interpretation The problem for this â€Å"clean† view is that we use commonsense reasoning, whatever this consists in, not merely in working out why a speaker has said something, but also in establishing what she has said in using the words chosen. The overall picture of interpretation is that grammar-internal principles articulate both syntactic and semantic structure for sentences, a semantic structure for a sentence being an incomplete specification of how it is understood. Pragmatic theory explains how such incomplete specifications are enriched in context to yield  the full communicative effect of an uttered sentence, whether metaphorical, ironical, and so on. The Process of Reasoning: How Do Hearers ever Manage to Choose the Right Interpretation? Grice’s cooperative principle and the conversational maxims According to Grice who was the pioneer of the inferential approach to conversation, there is a general assumption underpinning all utterance interpretation that the interpretation of utterances is a collaborative enterprise. This 8collaborative enterprise is structured by a number of maxims, which speakers are presumed to obey: †¢ The maxim of quality: do not say that for which you lack evidence; do not say what you believe to be false. †¢ The maxim of relevance: be relevant. †¢ The maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more so. †¢ The maxim of manner: be perspicuous (avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly). Grice articulated the maxims as a means of simplifying the overall account of the relation between the use of language in logical arguments and the conversational use of language. Relevance theory This theory claims to characterize pragmatic phenomena in terms of a single  cognitive concept, that of relevance, replacing the social underpinnings of Grice’s cooperative principle. The principle of relevance Optimal relevance is getting the right balance between size and type of context and amount of information derived. The more information some stimulus yields, the more relevant it is said to become, but the more effort the interpretation of that stimulus requires, the less relevant it will become. And to be minimally relevant a stimulus must lead to at least one non-trivial inference being derived. However interpretation of an act of communication involves two agents – the  speaker and the hearer. The constraint of balancing cognitive effect with cognitive effort will also apply to what the hearer does, but here the task of interpretation is more specific because the hearer has to try and recover what the speaker intended to convey. There are two aspects to the task: 1 Decoding the information associated with an uttered expression– i. e. working out what words have been said and the information that they by definition carry. 2 Making choices which enrich that encoded information to establish what the speaker had intended to convey using those words. Relevance and speech acts  On the speech act view of language, language can best be understood in terms of acts such as these which speakers carry out in using language. The observation by speech act theorists that there is more to language than just describing things is quite uncontentious. Nonetheless, in relevance theory, where the type of implications that can be drawn is quite unrestricted, there is no need of any special discrete categories for such different kinds of act. 5. Linguistic typology and its directions (14) 1 The Diversity of Human Languages The field of linguistic typology explores the diversity of human language in an  effort to understand it. The basic principle behind typology is that one must look at as wide a range of languages as possible in order to grasp both the diversity of 9language and to discover its limits. Typology uses a fundamentally empirical, comparative, and inductive method in the study of language. That is, typologists examine grammatical data from a wide variety of languages, and infer generalizations about language from that data. The basic discovery of typology is that there are limits to linguistic diversity. By comparing diverse languages and discovering universal grammatical patterns, one can attempt to disentangle what is  universal about the grammars languages from what is peculiar to each individual language. 2 The Nature of Language Universals: Word Order One of the first areas of grammar where it was recognized that there are limits to grammatical diversity was the order of words. Word order is probably the most immediately salient difference in grammatical patterns from one language to the next. First, one must examine a sample of languages in order to infer the range of grammatical diversity and its limits. A variety sample collects as broad a range of languages as possible from different geographical areas and different genetic  groupings. Its purpose is to ensure that all possible language types are identified. Second, one must be able to identify phenomena from one language to the next as comparable. The basic problem here is the great variety of grammatical structures used in the world’s languages. The solution to this problem is due to another insight of structuralism: the basic unit of the language is the sign, a form that conventionally expresses or encodes a meaning. The basis for cross-linguistic comparison is a particular linguistic meaning; once that is identified, we may examine the different structures used to encode that meaning. Third, we must identify a range of grammatical patterns or types used to express the linguistic meaning being examined, and classify languages according to what type(s) is / are used in them. For instance, in describing word order of the sentence, the relative position of subject (S), object (O), and verb (V) are used to classify language types. Language structure is determined by factors of language use, such as processing. Language structure is also determined by historical relationships among grammatical patterns, which themselves are due to similarity in meaning. However, these factors do not uniquely determine a language structure, but  compete with each other. Speech communities resolve the competing motivations in arbitrary, language-particular ways; this leads to the diversity of languages found in the world. 3 Language Universals and the Formal Encoding of Meaning Word order universals appear to be motivated in terms of processing of linguistic structure in the act of producing and comprehending language. Word order is a fundamental grammatical property of sentences. 3. 1 Typological markedness and morphological representation 10Some of the earliest work in typology examined the coding of grammatical and  lexical concepts in inflected word forms. The universals go under the name of (typological) markedness. Typological markedness represents an asymmetric pattern of the expression of meaning in grammatical categories across languages. Typological markedness has two central characteristics. First, typological markedness is a property of conceptual categories – e. g. singular and plural – or more precisely, how those conceptual categories are expressed in languages. For number, the singular is unmarked and the plural is marked. Second, unmarked status does not imply that the unmarked member is always left unexpressed and the marked member is always expressed by an overt morpheme. The presence / absence of an overt inflection encoding a conceptual category is only one symptom of markedness, namely structural coding. Typological markedness is found in another aspect of the coding of concepts in words and constructions. Most words in sentences express more than one conceptual category. Pronouns in English, for instance, can express gender as well as number. In English, neither the singular nor plural pronouns express number by a separate inflection; instead number is implicitly expressed by distinct forms such as he and  they. The grammatical coding of additional, cross-cutting, distinctions in the singular but not in the plural is an example of the second symptom of markedness, called behavioral potential. Behavioral potential is also represented by an implicational universal: If the marked member of a category grammatically expresses a crosscutting distinction, so does the unmarked member. A third property of typological markedness points to its underlying explanation. The unmarked member is more frequent than the marked member in language use. Concepts that occur more frequently in language use (e. g. singular) will tend to be expressed by fewer morphemes than less frequently occurring concepts (e. g. plural). This explanation for how meaning is encoded in grammatical form is a processing explanation, called economy or economic motivation. 3. 2 Hierarchies and conceptual spaces We can describe the cross-linguistic distribution of plural markings across classes of pronouns and nouns with the animacy hierarchy. The hierarchy is a succinct way to capture a chain of implicational universals: if any class of words has a plural, then all the classes to the left (or higher) on the hierarchy have a plural. These  patterns are defined over a conceptual space. The conceptual space describes a network of relationships among conceptual categories which exist in the human mind and which constrains how conceptual categories are expressed in grammar. Grammatical change must follow the links in conceptual space. For instance, a plural marking spreads from left to right in the animacy space. Conceptual spaces specify what grammatical category groupings are found in, and how constructions spread (or retreat) over time in their application to grammatical categories. If we compare absence vs. presence of case marking on nouns for the grammatical  11 relations hierarchy, we find that absence of case marking occurs at he higher end of the hierarchy, and presence thereof at the lower end of the hierarchy. The grammatical relations hierarchy also defines the distribution of verb agreement across languages. Verb agreement is associated with the higher end of the grammatical relations hierarchy – the ability to trigger verb agreement indicates the greater behavioral potential of the grammatical relation. These facts demonstrate that the two grammatical relations hierarchies in fact reflect a deeper cross-linguistic universal pattern, found in many different parts of the grammar of languages. 3. 3 Economy and iconicity Economic motivation: the more frequently used category is more likely to be reduced in expression or left unexpressed. Iconic motivation – the structure of language reflects the structure of concepts. In the example, each conceptual category, both singular and plural, are overtly encoded in the word form. A subtype of iconicity called isomorphism: the correspondence between forms and meanings. There are two ways in which isomorphism occur in human languages. The first way is in the correspondence of forms and meanings in the combination of words and inflections in a sentence. This is called syntagmatic isomorphism. Economic and iconic motivation compete to produce the range of attested and unattested correspondences between form and meaning. There are 3 predicted patterns. Overt expression is iconically motivated: there is a one-to-one correspondence between meanings and forms. However, it is only moderately economically motivated: it is more economical than expressing a meaning with more than one word or morpheme, but less economical than not expressing the meaning at all. Non-expression of a particular meaning, such as the singular of English nouns like car-O (vs.plural book-s), is economically motivated: zero expression breaks one-to-one correspondence between forms and meanings. The third possible option, zero marking of both singular and plural, corresponds to the absence of expression of the category. This option is economically motivated: either the meaning can be inferred from context, or it is not relevant to the communication. There is another economically motivated pattern of expressing meaning in form: the combination or fusion of discrete meanings in a single form. For example, the suffix -s in English run-s indicates 3rd person subject, singular  subject and present tense, all in a single suffix. In other languages, inflectional categories are found in separate suffixes, as in Turkish. The second type of isomorphism is the correspondence between form and meaning in the inventory of words stored in the mind; paradigmatic isomorphism. 12The possible means of expression of meanings in words are limited by economy and iconicity. Unmotivated possibility: the existence of more than one word with the same meaning, synonymy. It is not iconically motivated. A one-to-one match between a word and a meaning is called monosemy. It isiconic ally motivated but not that economically motivated: we would need very many words to express each discrete meaning. Homonymy is economically motivated, but it is not iconically motivated (many unrelated meanings are expressed by a single form). By far the most common state of affairs in languages, however, is polysemy: the grouping of related meanings under a single form. Polysemy is economically motivated because it subsumes several meanings under a single form, as with homonymy. It is iconically motivated, because the meanings are related. 4 The Dynamic Approach to Language Universals The most common word.

Religion Essay

He was the Lord of Hosts and the god of battle. B) He was believed to inspire battle ecstasy in some warriors; called Berserks who would fight welcomed into the Paradise of Valhalla those who died in battle. 9. Odin was often depicted as a Middle aged man with long curly hair and a beard. He was attended by two ravens, Hug in (though) and man in (memory). Which he sent out into the world every day to gather information for him. 10. Odin crucified himself on the world tree in a mysterious ritual of sacrificing himself to himself to advance his quest for sacred knowledge. For nine days and nights he hung, pierced by a spear, until magical ‘runes’ (mystical symbols) appeared before him. 11. Thor the god of thunder, lightning and storms, was Odin’s eldest brother, his mother was the earth. 12. This hammer was made for him by the Dwarves, and would magically he turn to his hand whenever he needed it. 13. Thor the of thunder, lighting and storms was Odin eldest brother and his mother was the earth. Thor was supernaturally strong and renowned for his huge appertite. He drove about the heavens in cart pulled by his two fierce billy gods. Tooth Cnasher and tooth Grinder. 14. Loki helped the giants trick the thunder god. * Loki the trickster god was notorious among the deities. * He was the foster- brother of Odin, and the one who gave the fishing net to the Nordic people. * He was actually a giant who had been adopted into the Aesir because of his lively wit. 15. Capable of both good and evil Loki was an ambiguous figure who later came to be linked with Christian images of the devil. 16. Bader, a son of Odin and Frigg was the god of light. Balder was the most beautiful and gracious of the Aesir in Asgard. His mother extracted oaths from all things in nature not a harm her son. Horde and aimed it for him at balder who was killed by it. The gods grieved inconsolably over his death. 17. Freyr ( twin brother of Freya, and originally once of the vanir) * Njord was the god of the sea and father of the twins Freyr and Freya. * Tyr (aka Tiwaz) was the sword god, the hideous Fenris wolf bit Try’s arm off as Fenris was bound for the third time. * Helmdall, the god of the rising down, stood guard at the Asgard end the Bifrost Bridge and carried Gjallar, the mighty war horn. 18. Female deities featured quite strongly in Nordic religion and were seen to be as sashed and powerful as the male gods. 19. Frijj, Odin’s wife and Queen of the deities, was goddess of lone and death. 20. Freya the most renowned of the god desses ‘was twin sister of Freyr, she lame to be worshipped in a variety of fields, from warfare to lone of fairs, beauty, soothsaying (prophecy or truth telling). Freya lived (ever greedy for knowledge); she taught him the shamanistic (spiritual) magic known as seider. In return, she received half of all the warriors slain in battle and brought to Asgard. 21. The Valkyries, foster- daughters of Odin, were supernatural women who lived in Valhalla where they were cupbearers to the shades (spirits) of dead warriors. Valkyries were copse goddesses, unromantically represented by the raven. Contrary to popular depiction they did not ride winged horses. Often in a troop of nine, they rode fierce wolves into battle and allocated victory and defeat to the combatants. 22. The rode fierce wolves into battle and allocated victory and defeat to the combat ants. Those who died in battle were taken by the Valkyries to Valhalla, the golden feasting hall of the gods in Asgard. 3. The Norns were the three Fates, three terrible sisters named. Urd (Fate), verdanda (Being), and skuld (Necessity) originally from the land of the giants the norns spun the threads of life that allocated each individual’s destiny. 24. They wore the threads that shaped the lives not only of numars but also of the gods themselves. For that reason, the norns were often regarde d as more powerful than the deities, some traditions say that the two eldest Norns (Urd, the Fate of the past, and verdanda, the Fate of the present). 25. The Norns also tended to Yggdrasil, the word tree, and kept it healthy. Every day they drew pure water from the spring of Fate, whitened it with clay and poured the mixture over the tree so that the water fell down to earth as fresh life giving dew. In this way, they preserved the always nibbling at Yggdrasil buds and new leaf shoots, the Norns kept the tree green and growing. 26. Hela was the Queen of the dead. She lived in the underworld of Niflheim, the northern land of ice and darkness, all who died from sickness or old age passed into Hela’s world. The giants were older than the gods, and know so much more about the past that the gods had to go to them for wisdom. The Norns of underlying implication that even the gods themselves would come to an end in time is a continual haunting theme throughout the stories of Nordic mythology. 28. Mimir (memory) a very old and very wise giant who was keeper of the spring of wisdom. * Vafthrudner was called the all wise among the giants in Jotunheim. * Hrimthurs, was the rock giant who but Asgard fortifications sart, was the southern land of prim evil fine which devoured all the world all the world at the end of time. 9. The Nordic mythology is threads that shaped the lives not only of numans but also of the gods themselves. The Norns after regarded as more powerful than the deities. The gods were not permitted to see their life threads, suggested that they were subject to a fate beyond their divine control. The Norn who fixed the length of the thread of life by some accounts, unravelled what he sister had made. The Norns also tended to Yggdrasil, the world tree, and kept it healthy.

Parenthood Should No Longer Be Funded By The Federal...

Millions of taxpayer dollars are going to fund Planned Parenthood. Along with the Obamacare introduction, Planned Parenthood has become a secondary cost to make sure women have health care throughout the United States. Along with the wasted money being spent, Planned Parenthood has other issues. The high cost of administration and the sale of fetus tissue and organs have become the latest in an agency out of control. Because of the wasteful administration of funds and ethical questions about disposing of fetuses, Planned Parenthood should no longer be funded by the Federal government. The tax paying citizens of the United States should know the cost and wasteful spending habits Planned Parenthood is conducted within the agency. Once the citizens become aware of the wasteful spending of millions of dollars, they will be able to take a stance against this agency’s policy. With the knowledge acquired, the citizens will be able to make a fully informed decision when asking their congressman to vote against funding of Planned Parenthood. American Birth Control League’s name changed to Planned Parenthood, which enabled the organization to encompass a new image and justify funding from the government and wealthy donors (Perry 1). The agency has influenced the birth control of the poor and the upper-class citizens of society. Margaret Sanger, the founder of Planned Parenthood, viewed poverty, illness, and strife caused by the fate of being in a large family. She saw small familiesShow MoreRelatedParenthood Should No Longer Be Funded By The Federal Government 1829 Words   |  8 PagesMillions of taxpayer dollars are going to fund Planned Parenthood. With the introduction of Obamacare, Planned Parenthood has become a secondary cost to ensure women have health care throughout the United States. 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Because of the wasteful administration of funds and ethical questions about disposing of fetuses, Planned Parenthood should no longer be funded by the Federal government. The tax paying citizens of the United States should know the cost and wasteful spending Planned Parenthood is conducted within the agency. Once the citizens become aware of the wasteful spending of millions of dollars, they will be able to take a stance against this agency’s policy. With the knowledge acquired, the citizens will be able to make a fully informed decision when asking their congressman to vote against funding of Planned Parenthood. American Birth Control League’s name was changed to Planned Parenthood, which enabled the organization to encompass a new image and justify funding from the government and wealthy donors (Perry 1). The agency has influenced the birth control of the poor and the upper class citizens of society. 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Texas has conservative right -wing views and has been in conflict more often with the federal government since President Obama has been in office. The dilemma generally arises from a clash in opposing political and social views. One major issue that has arisen in over the course of the last two years has been a battle over funding for Planned Parenthood. Although theRead MorePlanned Parenthood - Argumentative Essay1253 Words   |  6 PagesArgumentative Essay Planned Parenthood Millions of women across America will struggle to receive the medical attention they need if the federal government stops funding to Planned Parenthood. Every year 363 million dollars goes into the funding â€Å"pot† collectively at Planned Parenthood’s nationwide (Clark 5). This money is used predominantly by women; for six in ten women, Planned Parenthood acts as their main source of health care (Clark 4). Many individuals with low incomes depend on these clinicsRead MorePlanned Parenthood : Parenthood, Family Planning, And Reproductive Problems1020 Words   |  5 PagesAs you may have heard, Planned Parenthood is what the government officials are talking about recently. The Republicans want to take away the government funding for Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood is an organization that does scientific research and offers advice on contraception, family planning, and reproductive problems. Currently, the government funds the organization with the tax payerâ⠂¬â„¢s dollars. (Planned Parenthood at a Glance, 2014.) I am going to explain the history of the problem,Read MoreParenthood : The Target Population May Be Planned Parenthood Essay1638 Words   |  7 Pagespopulation may be Planned Parenthood (PP) as an entity, but the policy will affect the clients that depend on PP for services. If House Bill 294 passes, it will end federal funding to Planned Parenthood (House Bill 294, 2015). Planned Parenthood provides services to Medicaid recipients and other individuals with little to no income. The services provided by PP include providing free or low-cost contraceptives, cancer screenings, STD testing and treatment (Planned Parenthood, 2016). The populationRead MoreGovernment Funding Of Planned Parenthood Essay2104 Words   |  9 PagesAlexis McCarty Ms. Fehr Essay 3 4 April 2016 Government Funding of Planned Parenthood Planned Parenthood is an organization that provides healthcare and education to both men and women, having over 650 health centers that provide healthcare to countless communities around the world. Shockingly, 78% of those who use Planned Parenthoods services live at or below 150% of the federal poverty line, showing how important this organization is to low-income families (Topulos, Greene, Drazen). Their missionRead MoreThe Debate Over The Controversy Of Abortion1600 Words   |  7 PagesStates. While the emotional arguments regarding abortion can be compelling, but should have no bearing in the legal discussion, the individuals’ rights to life and liberty should be held above all. Thanks to the vast knowledge in the medical field, there is a point when it becomes irrefutable that two lives and their liberties must be considered and protected under the US Constitution. The abortion industry should be entirely privatized, acknowledge a child’s right to life, and be held on a civilRead MoreThe United States Of America s 2016 Presidential Election Essay2054 Words   |  9 Pagespresidential election, this is a thought that has cast an overcloud on the results of this presidential election.With the now anti-abortion president-elect Donald Trump, there are women, with some sense of equality, believing they run the risk of no longer having control of their body. Women compared to men, are then put at an inherent disadvantage when it comes to making decisions in regards to their own bodies. Not only does this disregard the steps made by the American society towards equality betweenRead MorePlanned Parenthood : Fund Or Defund Essay1818 Words   |  8 PagesPlanned Parenthood: Fund or Defund Just imagine a 17 year old girl sitting on her bathroom floor. She is staring at this plastic stick that is now going to determine her choices for the rest of her life. The little plus sign causes her stomach to tense up and her throat to choke up. Who will help her? Who will pay for the food her and her baby need? Who is the father? Will she finish high-school and go to college? How will her parents react? This young girl has a choice that will have majorRead MoreAbortion Is The Question Of When Life Begins1793 Words   |  8 Pagesthrough science as some people believe life begins at conception, fertilization of the egg, development of the fetus, or birth of a child. Determined separately by each state, the gestational limits set the number of weeks at which an abortion is no longer legal as the fetus would be viable outside of the womb. For most states in the US this is an average between twenty to twenty four weeks. Determined by the famous 1973 case of Roe vs. Wade, Jus tice Harry Blackmun concluded that the word â€Å"person† as